Terrorismo doméstico: Un estudio comparado de las Tres Américas en el siglo XXI
Resumen
El estudio sociológico del terrorismo cobró relevancia a partir del 11 de septiembre del 2001, produciendo investigaciones que lo analizan desde su vertiente internacional y mundial. De este modo, tanto el análisis del terrorismo doméstico como su ocurrencia en el continente americano, no han sido explorados por la investigación empírica. En ese contexto, el estudio busca llenar este vacío testeando la validez explicativa de cinco teorías en veinte países de Norte, Centro y Sud América. Los hallazgos obtenidos a partir del método de OLS sugieren que dos aspectos de las teorías de la deprivación económica y oportunidades políticas son los que mejor explican la variación del terrorismo doméstico: las variables de discriminación económica y política hacia minorías étnicas.Palabras clave:
Terrorismo doméstico, América, Discriminación étnica, OLS, Análisis continentalReferencias
Abadie, A. (2006). Poverty, political freedom, and the roots of terrorism. American Economic Review 96, 50–56.
Aksoy, D., Carter, D. (2014) ‘‘Electoral Institutions and the Emergence of Terrorist Groups,’’ British Journal of Political Science 44, no. 1: 181–204.
Altman, D., & Luna, J. P. (2012). Introducción: el estado latinoamericano en su laberinto. Revista de ciencia política (Santiago), 32(3), 521-543.
Bergesen, A. J., & Lizardo, O. (2004). International terrorism and the worldsystem. Sociological Theory, 22(1), 38-52.
Berkebile, R. E. (2017). What is domestic terrorism? A method for classifying events from the global terrorism database. Terrorism and political violence, 29(1), 1-26.
Bradley, John R (2006) Iran’s ethnic tinderbox.Washington Quarterly 30(1): 181–190.
Braithwaite, A., Quan Li. (2007). ‘‘Transnational Terrorism Hot Spots: Identification and Impact Evaluation,’’ Conflict Management and Peace Science 24, no. 4 (2007): 281–296.
Buendia, R. (2005) The state Moro armed conflicto in the Philippines: Unresolved national question or question of governance? Asian Journal of Political Science 13 (1): 109- 138.
Burgoon, B. (2006) On welfare and terror. Journal of Conflict Resolution 50(2):176– 203.
Butler, D. (2015). Terrorism science: 5 insights into jihad in Europe. Nature, 528(7580), 20.
Bwy, Douglas. (1968) “Political Instability in Latin America: The Cross Cultural Test of Causal Model.” L a t i n American Research Review 3: 17–66.
Cajas Cuadros, M. I. (2016). Los estados fallidos y el terrorismo: una mirada desde la literatura de las ciencias sociales.
Camargo, A. M., Guáqueta, F. A., & Ramírez, J. F. (2010). Estados fallidos: ¿amenaza global o regional? Revista de relaciones internacionales, estrategia y seguridad, 5(2), 73-108
Ceboratev, E. & Nef, J. (1989) “El fenómeno terrorista: una perspectiva global y algunas consideraciones empíricas y teóricas. In jaque mate a la democracia: orden internacional y violencia politica en America Latina.” Augusto Varas, ed., 69–89. Buenos Aires: Grupo Editor Latinoamerican.
Choi, S. W., & Piazza, J. A. (2016). Ethnic groups, political exclusion and domestic terrorism. Defence and Peace Economics, 27(1), 37-63.
Cilluffo, F. (2000). The threat posed from the convergence of organized crime, drug trafficking, and terrorism. Testimony of the Deputy Director, Global Organized Crime Program, Director, Counterterrorism Task Force, Centre for Strategic and International Studies, Washington (DC). to the US House Committee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime.
Cleary, Matthew R (2000) Democracy and indigenous rebellion in Latin America.
Comparative Political Studies 33(9): 1123–1153.
Crenshaw, M. (1981). ‘‘The Causes of Terrorism,’’ Comparative Politics 13: 379–399.
Cook, A. E. (2005). Encountering the Other: Evangelicalism and Terrorism in a Post 911 World. Journal of Law and Religion, 20(1), 1-30.
Cook, R. D. (1977). Detection of influential observation in linear regression.
Technometrics, 19(1), 15-18.
Durnagol, E. (2009). The Role of Drugs in Terrorism and Organized Crime, Ankara Bar Review https://mmun.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/sc-a.pdf
Farides-Mithcell, J. (2010). A new approach to terrorism research: a multi-theoretical approach for a multi-dimensional violent crime. University of new engalnd.
Feldman, A.; Perälä, M. (2001). Nongovernmental terrorism in latinamerica: reexamining old assumptions. The Helen Kellog Institute for international studies. Working paper #286.
Feldman, N., Ruffle, B. (2008). Religious Terrorism: A Cross-Country Analysis. Working
Paper Series — Economics of National Security, No. 8. Samuel Neaman Institute, Haifa.
Freeman, M. (2002). “Sources of Terrorist Financing: Theory and Typology.” Financing Terrorism: Case Studies. p. 7-25. Available as an E-Book from OSU’s library
Freytag, A., Krüger, J., Meierrieks, D., Schneider, F., (2009). The Origins of Terrorism: Cross-Country Estimates on Socio-Economic Determinants of Terrorism. Jena Economic Research Papers, No. 2009–009. University of Jena.
Graham, H. D. & Gurr, T. (1979) Violence in America. Historical and Comparative Perspectives. New York: Praeger.
Goldstein, K., (2005). Unemployment, inequality and terrorism: another look at the relationship between economics and terrorism. Undergraduate Economic Review 1 Article 6.
Gurr, T. (1970). Why Men Rebel. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Gurr, T. (2000) People Versus States. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press.
Gurr, T. (2011). “Why Men Rebel Redux: How Valid are Its Arguments 40 Years On?” Available at: http://www.e-ir.info/2011/11/17/why-men-rebel-redux-howvalid-are-its-arguments-40-years-on/
Halperin, E. (1988). “Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara and the Reality of Guerrilla Warfare.” In Michael Radu, ed.,Violence and the Latin American Revolutionaries, 37–55. New Brunswick: Transaction Books.
Handler, J. S. (1990). Socioeconomic profile of an American terrorist: 1960s and 1970s. Terrorism 13:195- 213.
Hanson, J. K. & Sigman, R. (2011) “Measuring State Capacity: Assessing and Testing the Options”. In Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association.
Hehir, A. (2007). The myth of the failed state and the war on terror: A challenge to the conventional wisdom. Journal of intervention and statebuilding, 1(3), 307-332.
Holmes, J. (2002). Terrorism, drugs, and violence in Latin AmericaLatin American Research Review, 37(3), 217- 230.
Institute for Economics and Peace. (2016). Global Terrorism Index 2016: Measuring and Understanding the Impact of Terrorism. Institute for Economics and Peace.
Jeff, V. (2005). “Inside the Mind of a Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Psychological Approaches.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 49(1) 3-42. Read 7-17.
Kis-Katos, K., Liebert H., Schulze, G. (2011). On the origin of domestic and international terrorism. European Journal of Political Economy 27, S17–S36.
Krieger, T.; Meierrieks, D. (2011). What causes terrorism?, Public Choice, Vol. 147, No. ½, Springer, pp. 3-27.
LaFree, G., & Dugan, L. (2009). Research on terrorism and countering terrorism. Crime and Justice, 38(1), 413-477.
LaFree, G., Dugan, L. (2004). “How Does Studying Terrorism Compare to Studying Crime?” in Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism: Criminological Perspectives. New York: Elsevier. p. 53-74.
Li, Quan (2005) Does democracy produce or reducetransnational terrorist
incidents?Journal of ConflictResolution 49(2): 278–297. Lopez, George. 1988. “Terrorism in Latin America.” In Michael Stohl, ed., The Politics of Terrorism, 497–524. New York: Marcel Dekker
Mullins, C.W., & Young, J.K. (2009). Cultures of violence and acts of terror: Applying a legitimation-habituation model to terrorism. Forthcoming, Crime and Delinquency 2010.
Neapolitan, J.L. (1994). Cross-national variation in homicides: The case of Latin
America. International Criminal Justice Review, 4, 4-22.
Newman, E. (2007). Weak states, state failure, and terrorism. Terrorism and political violence, 19(4), 463-488.
OECD (2007) “Principles for Good International Engagement in Fragile States and Situations”. Disponible online en: http://www.oecd.org/development/conflictandfragility/38368714.pdf
Piazza, J. (2006). “Rooted in Poverty? Terrorism, Poor Economic Development, and Social Cleavages.” Terrorism and Political Violence 18:159-177.
Piazza, J. (2008). ‘‘Do Democracy and Free Markets Protect Us from Terrorism?’’
International Politics 45: 72–91.
Piazza, J. A. (2008a). Incubators of terror: Do failed and failing states promote
transnational terrorism? International Studies Quarterly, 52(3), 469-488
Piazza, J. A. (2011). Poverty, minority economic discrimination, and domestic terrorism. Journal of Peace Research, 48(3), 339-353.
Piazza, J. (2017) Repression and Terrorism: A Cross-National Empirical Analysis of Types of Repression and Domestic Terrorism, Terrorism and Political Violence,
29:1, 102-118, DOI: 10.1080/09546553.2014.994061
Ranstorp, M. (2007). The virtual sanctuary of al-Qaeda and terrorism in an age of globalization. In International relations and security in the digital age (pp. 51-
76). Routledge.
Richardson, C. (2011). Relative deprivation theory in terrorism: A study of higher education and unemployment as predictors of terrorism. Politics Department, New York University.
Ross, J. (1993). ‘‘Structural Causes of Oppositional Political Terrorism: A Causal Model,’’ Journal of Peace Research 30: 317–329.
Sandler, Todd (1995) On the relationship between democracy and terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence 7 (4): 1–9
Sandler, Todd (2003) Collective action and transnational terrorism.World Economy26(6): 779–802.
Schneider, F., & Meierrieks, D. (s. f) The Illicit Drug Business and Terrorism: Panel Causality and Time-Series Evidence.
Steinitz, M. S. (2002). The Terrorism and Drug Connection in Latin America's Andean Region. CSIS Americas Program.
Sullivan, M. P. (2011). Latin America: terrorism issues. DIANE Publishing.
Tavares, J., (2004). The open society assesses its enemies: shocks, disasters and terrorist attacks. Journal of Monetary Economics 51, 1039–1070.
Tilly, C. (1978). From Movilization to Revolution. Reding MA: Addison- Wesley.
Tilly, C. (1985). War Making and State Making as Organized Crime. En P. Evans, Bringing the State Back In (págs. 169-191). Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity Press.
Tikuisis, P. (2009). On the relationship between weak states and terrorism. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 1(1), 66-79.
Van de, Voorde (2005) Sri Lankan terrorism: Assessing and responding to the threat of the Liberation Tigersof Tamil Eelam (LTTE). Policy Practice and Research 6(2): 181–199
Wade, Sarah Jackson & Dan Reiter (2007) Does democracy matter? Journal of Conflict Resolution 51(2): 329–348
Waldmann, Peter. (1992). “La Violencia organizada contra el estado en Europa y América Latina. Un análisis comparativo.” Estudios Internacionales 98: 298–327.
Warner, D. (1991) An Ethic of Responsibility in International Relations. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Weber, M. (2000) “La política como vocación”. En El político y el científico, 81-180. Madrid: Alianza Editorial.
White, J. (2014). “Models of Terrorism” and “Changing Dynamics and Structures.” Terrorism and Homeland Security. p. 54-66.
Yoo, J. (2011). Fixing Failed States. University of California, Berkeley, School of law., 95- 150.
Aksoy, D., Carter, D. (2014) ‘‘Electoral Institutions and the Emergence of Terrorist Groups,’’ British Journal of Political Science 44, no. 1: 181–204.
Altman, D., & Luna, J. P. (2012). Introducción: el estado latinoamericano en su laberinto. Revista de ciencia política (Santiago), 32(3), 521-543.
Bergesen, A. J., & Lizardo, O. (2004). International terrorism and the worldsystem. Sociological Theory, 22(1), 38-52.
Berkebile, R. E. (2017). What is domestic terrorism? A method for classifying events from the global terrorism database. Terrorism and political violence, 29(1), 1-26.
Bradley, John R (2006) Iran’s ethnic tinderbox.Washington Quarterly 30(1): 181–190.
Braithwaite, A., Quan Li. (2007). ‘‘Transnational Terrorism Hot Spots: Identification and Impact Evaluation,’’ Conflict Management and Peace Science 24, no. 4 (2007): 281–296.
Buendia, R. (2005) The state Moro armed conflicto in the Philippines: Unresolved national question or question of governance? Asian Journal of Political Science 13 (1): 109- 138.
Burgoon, B. (2006) On welfare and terror. Journal of Conflict Resolution 50(2):176– 203.
Butler, D. (2015). Terrorism science: 5 insights into jihad in Europe. Nature, 528(7580), 20.
Bwy, Douglas. (1968) “Political Instability in Latin America: The Cross Cultural Test of Causal Model.” L a t i n American Research Review 3: 17–66.
Cajas Cuadros, M. I. (2016). Los estados fallidos y el terrorismo: una mirada desde la literatura de las ciencias sociales.
Camargo, A. M., Guáqueta, F. A., & Ramírez, J. F. (2010). Estados fallidos: ¿amenaza global o regional? Revista de relaciones internacionales, estrategia y seguridad, 5(2), 73-108
Ceboratev, E. & Nef, J. (1989) “El fenómeno terrorista: una perspectiva global y algunas consideraciones empíricas y teóricas. In jaque mate a la democracia: orden internacional y violencia politica en America Latina.” Augusto Varas, ed., 69–89. Buenos Aires: Grupo Editor Latinoamerican.
Choi, S. W., & Piazza, J. A. (2016). Ethnic groups, political exclusion and domestic terrorism. Defence and Peace Economics, 27(1), 37-63.
Cilluffo, F. (2000). The threat posed from the convergence of organized crime, drug trafficking, and terrorism. Testimony of the Deputy Director, Global Organized Crime Program, Director, Counterterrorism Task Force, Centre for Strategic and International Studies, Washington (DC). to the US House Committee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime.
Cleary, Matthew R (2000) Democracy and indigenous rebellion in Latin America.
Comparative Political Studies 33(9): 1123–1153.
Crenshaw, M. (1981). ‘‘The Causes of Terrorism,’’ Comparative Politics 13: 379–399.
Cook, A. E. (2005). Encountering the Other: Evangelicalism and Terrorism in a Post 911 World. Journal of Law and Religion, 20(1), 1-30.
Cook, R. D. (1977). Detection of influential observation in linear regression.
Technometrics, 19(1), 15-18.
Durnagol, E. (2009). The Role of Drugs in Terrorism and Organized Crime, Ankara Bar Review https://mmun.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/sc-a.pdf
Farides-Mithcell, J. (2010). A new approach to terrorism research: a multi-theoretical approach for a multi-dimensional violent crime. University of new engalnd.
Feldman, A.; Perälä, M. (2001). Nongovernmental terrorism in latinamerica: reexamining old assumptions. The Helen Kellog Institute for international studies. Working paper #286.
Feldman, N., Ruffle, B. (2008). Religious Terrorism: A Cross-Country Analysis. Working
Paper Series — Economics of National Security, No. 8. Samuel Neaman Institute, Haifa.
Freeman, M. (2002). “Sources of Terrorist Financing: Theory and Typology.” Financing Terrorism: Case Studies. p. 7-25. Available as an E-Book from OSU’s library
Freytag, A., Krüger, J., Meierrieks, D., Schneider, F., (2009). The Origins of Terrorism: Cross-Country Estimates on Socio-Economic Determinants of Terrorism. Jena Economic Research Papers, No. 2009–009. University of Jena.
Graham, H. D. & Gurr, T. (1979) Violence in America. Historical and Comparative Perspectives. New York: Praeger.
Goldstein, K., (2005). Unemployment, inequality and terrorism: another look at the relationship between economics and terrorism. Undergraduate Economic Review 1 Article 6.
Gurr, T. (1970). Why Men Rebel. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Gurr, T. (2000) People Versus States. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press.
Gurr, T. (2011). “Why Men Rebel Redux: How Valid are Its Arguments 40 Years On?” Available at: http://www.e-ir.info/2011/11/17/why-men-rebel-redux-howvalid-are-its-arguments-40-years-on/
Halperin, E. (1988). “Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara and the Reality of Guerrilla Warfare.” In Michael Radu, ed.,Violence and the Latin American Revolutionaries, 37–55. New Brunswick: Transaction Books.
Handler, J. S. (1990). Socioeconomic profile of an American terrorist: 1960s and 1970s. Terrorism 13:195- 213.
Hanson, J. K. & Sigman, R. (2011) “Measuring State Capacity: Assessing and Testing the Options”. In Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association.
Hehir, A. (2007). The myth of the failed state and the war on terror: A challenge to the conventional wisdom. Journal of intervention and statebuilding, 1(3), 307-332.
Holmes, J. (2002). Terrorism, drugs, and violence in Latin AmericaLatin American Research Review, 37(3), 217- 230.
Institute for Economics and Peace. (2016). Global Terrorism Index 2016: Measuring and Understanding the Impact of Terrorism. Institute for Economics and Peace.
Jeff, V. (2005). “Inside the Mind of a Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Psychological Approaches.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 49(1) 3-42. Read 7-17.
Kis-Katos, K., Liebert H., Schulze, G. (2011). On the origin of domestic and international terrorism. European Journal of Political Economy 27, S17–S36.
Krieger, T.; Meierrieks, D. (2011). What causes terrorism?, Public Choice, Vol. 147, No. ½, Springer, pp. 3-27.
LaFree, G., & Dugan, L. (2009). Research on terrorism and countering terrorism. Crime and Justice, 38(1), 413-477.
LaFree, G., Dugan, L. (2004). “How Does Studying Terrorism Compare to Studying Crime?” in Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism: Criminological Perspectives. New York: Elsevier. p. 53-74.
Li, Quan (2005) Does democracy produce or reducetransnational terrorist
incidents?Journal of ConflictResolution 49(2): 278–297. Lopez, George. 1988. “Terrorism in Latin America.” In Michael Stohl, ed., The Politics of Terrorism, 497–524. New York: Marcel Dekker
Mullins, C.W., & Young, J.K. (2009). Cultures of violence and acts of terror: Applying a legitimation-habituation model to terrorism. Forthcoming, Crime and Delinquency 2010.
Neapolitan, J.L. (1994). Cross-national variation in homicides: The case of Latin
America. International Criminal Justice Review, 4, 4-22.
Newman, E. (2007). Weak states, state failure, and terrorism. Terrorism and political violence, 19(4), 463-488.
OECD (2007) “Principles for Good International Engagement in Fragile States and Situations”. Disponible online en: http://www.oecd.org/development/conflictandfragility/38368714.pdf
Piazza, J. (2006). “Rooted in Poverty? Terrorism, Poor Economic Development, and Social Cleavages.” Terrorism and Political Violence 18:159-177.
Piazza, J. (2008). ‘‘Do Democracy and Free Markets Protect Us from Terrorism?’’
International Politics 45: 72–91.
Piazza, J. A. (2008a). Incubators of terror: Do failed and failing states promote
transnational terrorism? International Studies Quarterly, 52(3), 469-488
Piazza, J. A. (2011). Poverty, minority economic discrimination, and domestic terrorism. Journal of Peace Research, 48(3), 339-353.
Piazza, J. (2017) Repression and Terrorism: A Cross-National Empirical Analysis of Types of Repression and Domestic Terrorism, Terrorism and Political Violence,
29:1, 102-118, DOI: 10.1080/09546553.2014.994061
Ranstorp, M. (2007). The virtual sanctuary of al-Qaeda and terrorism in an age of globalization. In International relations and security in the digital age (pp. 51-
76). Routledge.
Richardson, C. (2011). Relative deprivation theory in terrorism: A study of higher education and unemployment as predictors of terrorism. Politics Department, New York University.
Ross, J. (1993). ‘‘Structural Causes of Oppositional Political Terrorism: A Causal Model,’’ Journal of Peace Research 30: 317–329.
Sandler, Todd (1995) On the relationship between democracy and terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence 7 (4): 1–9
Sandler, Todd (2003) Collective action and transnational terrorism.World Economy26(6): 779–802.
Schneider, F., & Meierrieks, D. (s. f) The Illicit Drug Business and Terrorism: Panel Causality and Time-Series Evidence.
Steinitz, M. S. (2002). The Terrorism and Drug Connection in Latin America's Andean Region. CSIS Americas Program.
Sullivan, M. P. (2011). Latin America: terrorism issues. DIANE Publishing.
Tavares, J., (2004). The open society assesses its enemies: shocks, disasters and terrorist attacks. Journal of Monetary Economics 51, 1039–1070.
Tilly, C. (1978). From Movilization to Revolution. Reding MA: Addison- Wesley.
Tilly, C. (1985). War Making and State Making as Organized Crime. En P. Evans, Bringing the State Back In (págs. 169-191). Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity Press.
Tikuisis, P. (2009). On the relationship between weak states and terrorism. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 1(1), 66-79.
Van de, Voorde (2005) Sri Lankan terrorism: Assessing and responding to the threat of the Liberation Tigersof Tamil Eelam (LTTE). Policy Practice and Research 6(2): 181–199
Wade, Sarah Jackson & Dan Reiter (2007) Does democracy matter? Journal of Conflict Resolution 51(2): 329–348
Waldmann, Peter. (1992). “La Violencia organizada contra el estado en Europa y América Latina. Un análisis comparativo.” Estudios Internacionales 98: 298–327.
Warner, D. (1991) An Ethic of Responsibility in International Relations. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Weber, M. (2000) “La política como vocación”. En El político y el científico, 81-180. Madrid: Alianza Editorial.
White, J. (2014). “Models of Terrorism” and “Changing Dynamics and Structures.” Terrorism and Homeland Security. p. 54-66.
Yoo, J. (2011). Fixing Failed States. University of California, Berkeley, School of law., 95- 150.
